Main  Lib. 
Bap*. 


NATURE      STUDY      OUTLINES 

AGRICULTURA 
LIBRARY, 

UNIVERSIT 
For  the   use  of  the  teachers  of  the  statL  ' 

BY 

IOWA  STATE    HORTICULTURAL    SOCIETY 

AND 

STATE    AGRICULTURAL    COLLEGE 

!-0- 


EDITED     BV 


JOHN  CRAIG, 

AMES,       IOWA. 


.  n^rujjouu^ajo>uxj<  : 


SUGGESTIVE  OUTLINES 


Bearing  Upon  the  Introduction 


of. 


NATURE  STUDY 

....  into    the .... 

Schools  of  the  State. 

Authorised  by  the 

STATE  HORTCIULTURAL  SOCIETY 


, ..    ..  ..and,.,. .,,    .    ...   . 

>  >    •     »»»>**»  * » '  I  *\ 
'*  a  *„'•»",  i ,,««    »•*•*»•  ••••*• 

Prepared  by  Members  of  the  Faculty  of  the   Iowa 

Agricultural    College,    Assisted   by  Miss 

Julia  E.  Rogers,  East  High  School 

Des  floines,    Iowa. 


INST.        PRESS. 
GLENWOOD,     IOWA. 


IB  Lib. 
Dept. 


CHAPTER  I 

£  INTRODUCTORY  g 

TO  THE    TEACHER. 

BY  THE    EDITOR. 

The  following  pages  are  the  result  of  a  combined  effort  on  the 
part  of  the  State  Horticultural  Society  and  the  Iowa  Agricultural 
College  to  place  some  outlines  b2fore  the  teachers  ctfjhe  rural _ 
schools  which  might  be  followed,  with  the  hope  of  interesting  Hie' 
pupils  in  some  of  the  natural  things  about  them.  The  Horticultural 
Society  has  in  view  the  advancement  of  the  horticultural  interests 
of  the  state  by  developing  a  love  for,  and  a  knowledge  of  plants, 
in  th  2  hearts  and  minds  of  Iowa  school  children.  The  Agricul- 
tural College  labors  for  the  promotion  of  accurate,  systematic,  and 
business-like  farming,  in  other  words,  scientific  farming. 

Agriculture  may  not  be  a  pure  science  but  at  all  events  it  can 
only  be  successful  when  based  upon  scientific  principles  coupled 
with  business-like  practices.  As  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  business  of  agriculture  and  the  science  of  agriculture,  so 
it  is  much  the  more  difficult  to  separate  horticulture  from  agricul- 
ture in  a  manner  reasonable  and  appropriate.  In  their  fundamen- 
tals they  are  identical.  They  differ  in  ultimate  details  only.  It 
follovvS  therefore  that  a  pupil  interested  in  seme  branch  of  the 
great  realm  of  nature  is  likely  to  be  drawn  into  the  field  of  agricul- 
ture, and  if  not,  is  at  least  the  better  equipped  to  enjoy  life  in  the 
highest  and  best  manner. 

That  the  State  Horticultural  Society  and  the  State  Agricultural 
College  should  co-operate  with  the  State  Superintendent  of  Educa- 
tion in  the  initial  steps  of  this  movement  is  appropriate  and  grati- 
fying. In  no  way  can  ths  happiness  and  welfare  of  the  rural  classes 
be  accomplished  so  fully  as  by  giving  them  an  intelligent  interest 
in  and  knowledge  of  the  common  things  which  surround  them  in 
every  day  life. 

This  kind  of  study  has  been  aptly  termed  "Nature  Study."  It 
has  been  more  accurately  defined  as  "Seeing  the  things  one  looks 
at,  and  the  drawing  of  proper  conclusions  from  what  one  sees." 
It  is  not  the  study  of  any  science  in  as  much  as  it  is  not  systema- 
tic and  orderly*  It  indicates  study  and  observation  and  engenders 
a  sympathetic  bond  between  observer  and  object. 

Nature   Study    has  progressed  rapidly  in  New  York  schools.      It 

306318 


2  c  INTRODUCTORY. 

has  been  successfully  introduced  into  Indiana  and  has  come  to 
many  a  harrassed  and  fretful  pupil  as  a  welcome  recreation. 
What  nature  study  is  and  how  it  may  be  introduced  into  schools 
is  admirably  outlined  in  Teacher's  Leaflet  No.  6  issued  by  the 
College  of  Agriculture  of  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  New  York. 
In  this  leaflet  Prof.  Bailey  says,  ''The  proper  objects  of  Nature 
study  are  the  things  which  one  oftenest  meets.  Today  it  is  a 
stone,  tomorrow  it  is  a  twig,  a  bird,  an  insect,  a  leaf,  a  flower. 

"The  child,  or  even  the  high  school  pupil,  is  first  interested  in 
things  which  do  not  need  to  b3  analyzed  or  changed  into  unusual 
forms  or  problems.  Therefore  problems  of  chemistry  and  of 
physics  are  for  the  mo3t  piri:  u  I3.itta.bl2  to  eirly  1^333  13  in  nitura 
study;  but  it  is  often  difficult  to  secure  specimens  when  needed 
especially  in  liberal  quantity  and  still  more  difficult  to  see  the 
object  in  perfectly  natural  condition.  Plants  are  more  easily 
had  and  therefore  more  practicable  for  the  purpose,  although 
animals  and  minerals  should  by  no  means  be  excluded. 

"If  the  objects  to  ba  studied  are  informal,  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing should  be  the  same.  If  nature-study  were  made  a  stated  part 
of  a  curriculum,  its  purpose  would  be  defeated.  The  chiefest 
difficulty  with  our  present  school  methods  is  the  neccessary  for- 
mality of  the  courses  and  the  hours.  Tasks  are  set,  and  tasks  are 
always  bard.  The  only  way  to  reach  nature-study  is,  with  no 
course  laid  out,  to  bring  in  whatever  object  may  be  handy  and  to 
set  the  pupils  to  looking  at  it.  The  pupils  do  the  work, — they  see 
the  thing  and  explain  its  structure  and  meaning.  The  exercise 
should  not  he  long,  not  to  exceed  fifteen  minutes  at  any  time  era 
above  all  things,  The  pupil  should  never  look  upon  it  as  a  recita- 
tion, and  there  should  never  be  an  examination.  It  should  come 
as  a  rest  exercise  whenever  the  pupils  become  listless.  Ten  min- 
utes a  day,  for  one  term,  of  a  short,  sharp,  and  spicy  observation 
upon  plants,  for  example,  is  worth  more  than  a  whole  text  book 
of  botany. 

"The  teacher  should  studiously  avoid  definitions,  and  the  setting 
of  patterns.  The  old  idea  of  a  model  flower  is  a  pernicious  one, 
simply  because  it  does  not  exist  in  nature.  The  model  flower,  the 
complete  leaf,  and  the  like,  are  inferences,  and  pupils  should  al- 
ways begin  with  things  and  not  ideas.  In  other  words  the 
ideas  should  be  suggested  by  the  things,  and  not  the  things  by  the 
ideas.  "Here  is  a  drawing  of  a  model  flower,"  the  old  method 
says,  "go  and  find  the  nearest  approach  to  it."  "Go  and  find  me 
a  flower,"  is  the  true  method,  "and  let  us  see  what  it  is." 


INTRODUCTORY.  3 

"Every  child,  and  every  grown  person  too,  for  that  matter,  is  in- 
terested in  nature-study,  for  it  is  the  natural  method  of  acquiring 
knowledge.  The  only  difficulty  lies  in  the  teaching,  for  very  few 
teachers  have  had  any  drill  or  experience  in  this  informal  method 
of  drawing  out  the  observing  and  reasoning  powers  of  the  pupil 
wholly  without  the  use  of  text-books.  The  teacher  must  first  of 
all  feel  the  living  interest  in  natural  objects  which  it  is  desired  the 
pupils  shall  acquire..  If  the  enthusiasm  is  not  catching,  better  let 
such  teaching  alone. 

"All  this  means  that  the  teacher  will  need  helps.  He  will  need 
to  inform  himself  before  hi  attempts  to  inform  the  pupil.  It  is 
not  neccessary  that  he  become  a  scientist  in  order  to  do  this.  He 
simply  goes  as  far  as  he  knows,  and  then  says  to  the  pupil  that  he 
cannot  answer  the  question  which  he  cannot.  This  at  once 
raises  his  estimation  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil,  for  the  pupil  is  con- 
vinced of  his  truthfulness,  and  is  made  to  feel — but  how  seldom  is 
the  sensation! — that  knowledge  is  not  the  peculiar  property  of  the 
teicher  but  is  the  right  of  any  one  who  seeks  it.  It  sets  the  pupil 
investigating  for  himself.  The  teacher  never  needs  to  apologize 
for  nature.  He  is  teaching  simply  because  he  is  an  older  and 
more  experienced  pupil  than  his  pupil  is.  That  is  just  the  spirit 
of  the  teacher  in  the  universities  to:day.  The  best  teacher  is  one 
\\  i  se  pupils  the  farthest  out-run  him. 

"In  order  to  help  the  teacher  in  the  rural  schools  of  New  York, 
we  have  conceived  of  a  series  of  leaflets  explaining  how  the  com- 
mon objects  can  be  made  interesting  to  children.  Whilst  these 
are  intended  for  the  teacher,  there  is  no  harm  in  giving  them  to 
the  pupil;  but  the  leaflets  should  never  be  used  as  texts  to  make 
recitations  from.  Now  and  then,  take  the  children  fora  ramble  in 
the  woods  or  fields,  or  go  to  the  brook  or  lake.  Call  their  atten- 
tion to  the  interesting  things  which  you  meet — whether  you  under- 
stand them  yourself  or  not — in  order  to  teach  them  to  see  and  to 
find  some  point  of  sympathy,  for  every  one  of  them  will  some  day 
need  the  solace  and  the  rest  which  this  nature  love  can  give  them. 
It  is  not  the  mere  information  which  is  valuable;  that  may  be  had 
by  asking  some  one  wiser  than  they,  but  the  inquiring  and  sympa- 
thetic spirit  is  one's  own. 

"The  pupils  will  find  their  lessons  easier  to  acquire  for  this  re- 
spite of  ten  minutes  with  a  leaf  or  an  insect,  and  the  school-going 
will  come  to  be  less  perfunctory.  If  you  must  teach  drawing,  set 
the  picture  in  a  leaflet  before  the  pupils  for  study,  and  then  sub- 
stitute the  object.  If  you  must  teach  composition,  let  the  pupils 
write  upon  what  they  have  seen.  After  a  time,  give  ten  minutes 


4  INTRODUCTORY. 

now  and  then  asking  the  children  what  they  saw  on  their  way  to 
school. " 

The  above  advice  offered  to  the  teachers  cannot  easily  be  im- 
proved upon.  It  is  quite  as  applicable  to  Iowa  teachers  as  to  New 
York  teachers.  In  the  outlines  which  follow  are  contained  sugges- 
tions which  may  guide  the  teachers  in  the  beginnings  of  this  good 
work.  I  trust  these  outlines  will  be  studied  by  the  teacher  and 
applied  in  the  most  fitting  manner.  Teachers  who  desire  some- 
thing more  specific  on  horticulture  are  reminded  that  the  State 
Horticultural  Society  has  a  permanent  officer,  its  Secretary,  resident 
in.  i^s  rooms  at  the  Capitol  building,  Des  Moines,  who  is  ready 
and  qualified  to  assist  them;  that  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College  at 
Ames  has  a  trained  staff  of  scientific  workers  and  teachers  who 
may  be  depended  upon  to  render  assistance  whenever  called  upon. 
The  opportunity  is  offorded,  let  us  improve  it. 

It  is  not  expected  that  every  teacher  will  find  the  follow- 
ing outlines  adapted  to  the  needs  of  his  or  her  pupils;  it  is 
hoped,  however,  that  some  of  the  suggestions  may  be  helpful  to 
each  one  and  that  they  will  be  put  into  operation.  Before  taking 
up  the  suggestive  lessons  which  follow,  I  am  pleased  to  offer 
the  thoughts  of  an  Iowa  teacher  who  has  had  considerable  experi- 
ence in  presenting  to  teachers  and  pupils  various  phases  of  the 
nature  study  movement;  Miss  Julia  E.  Rogers,  of  the  East  Des 
Moines  High  School,  writes  as  follows:  "The  first  question  is  a 
natural  one:  'How  shall  teachers  get  ready  to  do  this  Nature  work?' 
And  then:  Ts  there  some  book  that  we  can  get  that  has  the  subject 
written  up  for  us?"  How  natural,  habitual  is  this  question!  But 
I  answer  you,  let  the  bcoks  alone  for  awhile.  Come  out  into  the 
fields  and  woods.  Drink  in  the  spirit  of  the  summer.  Give 
yourself  up  to  it.  Let  it  reach  you  through  all  the  avenues  of 
your  being.  Now  get  the  poems  ot  Wordsworth,  the  writings  of 
John  Burroughs,  and  Richard  Jeffries,  and  Maurice  Thompson, 
and  the  rest  of  them.  'Are  these  works  on  Pedagogy  and  Nature 
Study  Methods?'  They  are  not.  But  don't  you  care.  Forget  the 
dusty  schoolroom,  if  you  can,  and  among  the  shadows  of  the  trees 
let  these  inspiring  writers  lead  you  into  that  kingdom  which  is 
promised  to  those  who  seek  it.  'Except  ye  become  as  a  little 
child  ye  cannot  enter  in.' 

If  such  an  experience  as  this  can  be  yours  this  summer,  I  con- 
gratulate you.  To  feel  an  intimacy  growing  up  between  yaurself 
and  the  world  of  plant  and  animal  life  all  about  you  is  to  feel  also 
an  intellectual  warmth  and  joy  that  is  unlike  anything  felt  before 
--a  feeling  that  binds  you  to  nature  by  cords  that  strengthen 
every  day. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


"And  now  comes  to  your  mind  the  vital  and  practical  question; 
"•How  shall  we  present  this  nature  study  to  our  pupils?"  "Shall 
our  already  over-crowded  daily  program  become  further  congested 
by  the  addition  of  a  new  subject?"  The  good  sense  of  the  teach- 
ing profession  says  'No.'  "Shall  we  throw  out  something  and 
put  Nature  study  in  its  place?"  Again  the  answer  is  'No.' 

"Nature  study  comes  not  to  destroy  but  to  fulfill.  It  is  not  a 
single  subject  to  be  classified  and  scheduled  for  so  many  hours 
per  week — to  be  measured  as  to  volume  and  quality  by  set  recita- 
tions and 'final  examinations  and  percents.  Since  the  moulds  are 
all  full,  why  not  let  this  one  thing  keep  its  natural  form  and 
comliness?- 

"Some  people  take  beautiful,  fragrant  apples  and  laborously  con- 
vert them  into  "buttar. "  Shades  of  Pomona!  And  there  are 
teachers  who  would  take  Nature  Study,  flower  of  all  the  pedagog- 
ies, having  the  dew  of  its  youth  and  the  beauty  thereof,  and  system- 
atize it  till  it  fits  into  some  scheme. 

"There  is  nothing  formal  or  conventional  or  systematic  about  the 
ideal  Nature  study  lesson.  The  teaching  of  sciences  is  good  in  its 
proper  place.  But  this  is  the  teaching  of  children. 

"Put  away  formality.  Come  down  from  your  platform  for  a 
little  while.  Sit  down  among  the  children  with  some  interesting 
thing  in  your  hand  and  in  theirs.  Lead  them  to  tell  all  that  can 
be  learned  about  it  by  close  observation.  Lead  them  to  find  out 
the  significance  of  what  they  see.  Do  not  exploit  your  own  know- 
ledge of  a  subject  until  all  other  resources  are  exhausted.  It  is  far 
more  important  to  awaken  an  interest  in  the  subject  than  to  store 
the  mind  with  facts  about  it.  Make  Nature  Study  a  recreative 
exercise.  It  is  not  neccessary  to  have  stated  times  for  its  recur- 
rence. Fill  in  odd  moments  with  it.  It  is  wonderful  to  note  the 
revelations  of  truth  and  beauty  which  we  get  from  the  careful  ex- 
amination of  the  common,  every  day  things  that  we  used  to  con- 
sider beneath  our  notice. 

"A  very  little  botany  will  prepare  us  "to  read  the  secret  of  a 
plain  weed's  heart,"  and  in  such  study  we  continually  add  to  the 
resources  of  life — to  our  capacity  of  appreciation  and  enjoyment  of 
all  that  is  going  on  in  the  great  world  out  of  doors.  Knowledge 
gained  at  first  hand  is  doubly  valuable,  for  with  the  knowledge  al- 
ways comes  an  educational  blessing.  And  this  blessing  you  know 
how  to  bestow  upon  the  children  whose  steps  it  is  your  privilege 
to  guide. 

"  'How  much  time  shall  we  devote  to  Nature  Study?7  You 
must  answer  this  question  yourself.  If  you  have  the  nature  love 


6  INTRODUCTORY. 

strong  in  you.  the  season  will  invite  you — the  interests  of  the 
children  will  guide  you.  '  'Fifteen  minutes  a  day",  some  one  says. 
Very  well.  Fifteen  minutes  spent  each  day  in  the  close  scrutiny 
of  some  interesting  object — now  a  leaf,  now  a  plant,  a  pebble,  a 
bird  or  an  insects,  with  an  occasional  trip  to  a  pond,  or  an  orchard, 
or  to  the  park — will  bear  a  wondrous  harvest.  Behold  how  great 
a  matter  a  little  fire  kiddlethi  And  nothi.ig  sets  the  hearts  of  boys 
and  girls  on  fire  as  does  this  natural  study  of  natural  things. 

"Follow  the  children  home — ask  the  parents  what  their  children 
talk  about  and  you  will  find  out  how  constantly  the  child  mind 
turns  back  to  that  which  is  to  it  the  most  real  and  interesting.  "Cor- 
relate" is  a  good  pedagogical  word.  We  hear  a  great  deal  about  it. 
What  better  common  factor  than  Nature  Study  for  the  correlation 
of  the  various  branches  we  are  called  upon  to  teach? 

"A  glass  may  be  brimful  of  water,  and  yet  we  may  gradually  add 
a  spoonful  of  sugar  and  it  will  not  run  over.  The  teacher's  daily 
cup  is  full;  but  let  her  put  in  Nature  Study — gradually,  quietly, — 
and  it  will  sweeten  the  whole,  and  her  cup  will  not  run  over." 


CHAPTER  II. 

NATURE  AND  ORIGIN    OF  THE  SOIL.* 

All  the  plants  grown  upon  the  farm  or  in  the  garden  grow  in  the 
soil;  even  those  that  appear  to  be  growing  in  streams  and  marshes 
have  their  roots  in  the  soil  beneath  the  water.  Sometimes  we  see 
plants  grow  in  water  in  the  house  or  greenhouse,  but  most  of 
those  found  there  are  grown  in  pots  filled  with  soil.  The  plants 
found  on  the  surface  of  rocks  or  on  old  rail  fences  are  of  a  low, 
simple  order.  We  may  then  conclude  that  most  of  the  plants 
that  we  are  most  familiar  with  require  the  soil,  and  we  therefore 
shall  study  fora  while  the  soil,  its  nature,  its  origin,  and  its  im- 
provement. 

KINDS  OF  SOIL:- — Sandy  soil  is  made  up  principally  of  sand.  If 
we  take  a  handful  of  dry  sand  we  find  that  it  consists  of  small 
grains  that  are  easily  mixed  together.  If  we  moisten  it,  it  will 
cling  together  and  can  be  moulded  into  various  forms,  but  when 
it  dries  the  particles  all  fall  apart  into  fine  sand  as  before.  Then 
there  is  clay  of  various  colors,  sometimes  red,  sometimes  almost 
white,  and  sometimes  nearly  blue.  If  we  moisten  it  we  can  mould 
it,  but  when  it  dries  it  keeps  its  shape  and  becomes  hard.  We 
readily  see  the  difference.  When  we  walk  over  wet  sandy  soil  and 
wet  clayey  soil,  the  former,  when  dry,  readily  rubs  off  our  boots, 
the  latter  sticks.  Sand  is  used  for  making  moulds  i a  the  foundry 
and  clay  is  usad  for  making  models  by  the  artist;  the  former  read- 
ily falls  apart  after  being  taken  out  of  the  boxes  and  can  be  used 
again,  and  the  latter  when  moulded  and  worked  keeps  its  shape  as 
it  dries. 

Make  two  sets  of  objects,  such  as  balls,  cubes,  cups,  vasss,  or  simple 
figure  of  small  animals,  one  set  from  wet  sand  and  one  set  from  clay. 
Place  them  in  the  sun  or  near  the  stove  and  observe  ths  effact  of  drying. 

We  see  that  sand  as  it  dries  does  not  stick  together,  and  clay  as 
it  dries  does  stick  together  and  also  sticks  to  other  objects.  We 
now  understand  how  it  is  that  wet  clay  is  sticky,  it  clings  to  the 
plow  and  the  harrow  and  to  the  feet  of  the  horses  and  is  hard  or 
heavy  to  work.  Sandy  soil  is  said  to  be  light  and  clay  soil  to  be 
heavy,  not  because  of  their  weight,  but  because  the  former  is 
easily  worked  and  the  latter  is  harder  to  work.  If  we  watch  closely 
the  drying  out  of  the  two  sets  of  objects  that  we  have  moulded  we 
shall  observe  further  that  the  sand  dries  more  quickly  than  the 
clay;  the  latter  holds  on  to  the  water  longer.  Clay  soils  are  unusual- 
ly wet  soils;  they  are  more  apt  to  have  water  in  them  than  sandy 
soils. 

#rrom  Practical  Agriculture,  James.  By  kind  permission  of  Messerc. 
D.  Aoobton  £  Co.,  New  York. 


8  NATURE   AND   ORIGIN     OF  THE   COIL. 

The  third  class  soils  is  unusually  dark  in  colcr  from  light  brown 
to  dense  black,  such  as  are  found  in  the  woods  where  leaves  and 
branches  have  decayed,  and  in  low  pastures  and  swampy  places. 
This  soil  is  made  up  of  the  refuse  of  leaves,  branches  and  the 
roots  of  plants.  Sometimes  we  can  see  pieces  of  half-decayed  or 
rotten  plants;  sometimes  there  are  very  slight  traces  of  the  origi- 
nal form  of  plants.  This  soil  has,  however,  all  come  from  f  ormer 
plants.  We  callsuch  a  soil  a  vegetable  soil,  and  this  dark  colored, 
loose  material  formed  from  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter  is  called 
humus.  Notice  how  it  differs  from  both  sand  and  clay.  It  is  light 
weight  and  easily  worked  and  holds  w<ater  readily. 

Place  a  handful  of  swamp  muck  or  leaf  mould,  humus,  on  an  iron  fire 
shovel  and  carefully  set  it  upon  the  burning  coals.  It  dries  out,  then 
burns  away  until  only  a  small  quantity  of  ash  is  left.  Place  some  wet  sand 
on  the  shovel  and  heat,  and  then  a  little  wet  clay.  What  is  the  result? 

These,  then,  are  three  principle  parts  of  soil — sand,  clay, 
and  humus,  but  in  many  cases  we  find  them  mixed  together  or  one 
above  the  other.  If  sand  is  the  principal  part  of  the  soil  we  call 
it  a  sandy  soil;  if  clay,  a  clay  soil;  and  if  humus  or  muck,  a  vege- 
table soil.  A  loam  soil  contains  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay  with 
some  humus,  and  such  a  soil  is  usually  best  fitted  for  growing 
most  of  the  crops  of  the  farm. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  SOIL: — We  already  know  where  tlie  humus  or 
vegetable  matter  has  come  from,  and,  as  it  was  formerly  parts  of 
plants,  we  conclude  that  it  must  contain  material  for  feeding  new 
plants.  But  where  did  the  sand  and  clay  come  from? 

Perhaps  you  have  never  before  asked  that  question,  thinking  that 
the  clay  and  the  sand  were  always  in  the  field  in  that  form.  This, 
however,  is  not  the  case,  although  they  may  have  been  there  for 
many  years,  perhaps  hundreds  of  years,  perhaps  thousands.  Why 
do  we  say  they  have  not  been  there  for  all  time?  Well,  if  we  go 
to  the  shore  of  a  large  lake  we  see  fresh  sand  being  washed  up  day 
by  day  by  the  waves.  If  we  go  to  the  banks  and  mouth  of  a 
large  river  or  even  a  small  stream,  w7e  see  sand  and  clay  and  vege- 
table matter  washed  down,  carried  away,  and  spread  out  to  form 
n^w  layers  of  soil.  If  wTe  go  to  the  face  of  a  high,  rocky  cliff  we 
can  see  the  great  rocks  being  gradually  broken  down  and  changed 
into  piles  of  coarse  stone,  and  later  into  finer  material,  and  still 
later  into  sand  and  clay.  But  if  we  go  to  a  range  of  mountains 
or  high  hills  we  shall  see  more  clearly  the  change  of  great  rocks 
into  fine  soil. 

Under  our  soil  we  find  solid  rock.  In  some  places  the  rock  is  at 
the  surface,  and  wTe  can  see  it  becoming  withered  and  rotten.  The 


NATURE   AND  ORIGIN   OF  THE   SOIL.  9 

outer  surface  is  softer  than  the  interior.  In  other  places  the  rock 
is  just  under  the  surface.  In  some  places  we  have  to  go  very  deep 
to  find  the  rock,  but  it  is  always  there  to  be  found  if  wre  only  go 
deep  enough.  All  of  our  sand  and  clay  have  come  from  these  old 
rocks,  sand  from  one  kind  of  rock,  white  clay  from  another  kind  of 
rock,  blue  clay  from  another.  The  nature  of  the  soil  will  therefore 
depend  largely  upon  the  nature  of  the  rock  from  which  it  came. 
This  sand  or  clay  may  have  come  from  the  breaking  up  of  the 
rocks  that  are  found  just  under  the  soil;  in  that  case  the  soil  is 
likely  to  be  shallow.  But  usually  it  has  come  from  rocks  at  a  dis- 
tance, a  long  distance  it  may  be,  and  has  been  carried  to  its  pre- 
sent place  by  water  and  ice,  and  spread  out  over  the  old  rocks. 


Figure     i. 

Soil  formed  from  a  rock  at  a  distance.  <i  is  solid  rock  cf  a  hill  or  mountain.  Rock  at  f 
has  been  broken  off  by  rain  and  frost  and  thrown  down  to  foot  of  hill.  Finest  soil  is  being 
Washed  into  stream  to  be  carried  away  to  build  farms  elsewhere. 

In  this  latter  case  the  soil  may  be  very  deep  and  mixed,  we  can 
now  explain  why  the  soil  in  some  places  is  quite  different  in  its  na- 
ture from  the  rocks  under  it, and  why  there  is  such  a  variety  in  the 
the  same  locality  and  on  the  same  farm.  One  field  may  be  clayey, 
and  across  a  stream  we  may  find  a  sandy  soil.  They  have  come 
from  different  places,  and  have  been  washed  down  by  the  water  and 
spread  out  at  different  times. 

A  step  farther    back  can  now  be    taken.      We  go  to  the    hills,  to 


10 


NATURE   AND   ORIGIN   OF  THE   SOIL. 


the  great  piles  of  rock.  We  observe  that  the  old  rock  is  weather- 
ed. If  we  break  off  a  piece,  the  fresh  surface  shows  a  different  ap- 
pearance from  the  old  weathered  surface;  it  is  generally  harder. 
We  can  rub  off  some  of  the  old  weathered  surface;  what  we  rub 
off  is  the  weathered  rock,  fine  sand  or  fine  clay.  We  observe  long 
cracks  or  crevices,  some  r arrow  and  fine,  some  wide  and  deep. 
The  rains  find  their  way  into  these  cracks  and  fill  them  up.  Then 
winter  comes  on  and  the  water  in  the  cracks  freezes.  What  will 
happen  then?  Just  what  happens  when  the  barrel  of  rain  water 
freezes,  or  the  down  pipes  on  the  house  freeze  solid,  or  the  bottles 
of  canned  fruit  in  the  cellar  freeze.  There  will  be  a  bursting.  And 
even  though  the  quantity  of  water  is  small,  it  must  expand,  the 
rocks  must  give  to  make  room  for  it.  The  cracks  are  made  larger, 
a  little  of  the  surface  is  broken  away,  or  a  huge  shoulder  of  the  rock 
is  burst  off.  Gradually,  year  by  year,  the  rocks  are  broken  up  by 
the  frost,  the  atmosphere  wears  them  away,  and  the  rains  wash 
them  down.  The  rocky  cliffs  are  slowly  broken  down,  and  the  ice, 
as  it  slowly  moves  down  the  sides  of  the  mountain,  scrapes  and 
scratches  off  more  and  more.  This  material  is  washed  away — the 
larger  pieces  but  a  short  distance,  the  smaller  pieces  further,  and 
the  finest  sand  and  clay  carried  far  away,  to  be  dropped  or  spread 
out  somewhere  to  make  soil.  Seeds  are  dropped  by  the  birds  or 
blown  by  the  winds;  some  plants  sprout,  grow,  die,  and  decay  and 
form  a  little  humus.  More  plants  grow  and  more  humus  is  formed, 
until  out  of  the  material  that  came  from  the  hard,  rough  rocks  and 
the  decay  of  roots  and  leaves  a  fine  soil  is  formed,  sandy  in  one 
place,  clayey  in  another,  and  loamy  in  another. 


Soil  formed  from  rock  underneath.  «  soil  with  grass  growing  on  it.  l>  subsoil,  coarser 
and  mere  rocky.  c  coarse  loose  rocks,  d  rocks  in  layers,  cracked.  </  changes  to^,  c 
changes  to  b  and  b  to  «. 


NATURE   AND   ORIGIN   OF  THE   SOIL.  II 

Conclusions: 

i-All  our  soils  have  come  from  the  breaking  down  of  rocky 
material  and  the  decay  of  former  plants. 

2  Soils  may  be  classed  as  follows:  sandy,  clay,  loam,  and  vege- 
table or  humus  soils. 

3— The  texture  of  the  soil  depends  upon  the  amount  of  sand, 
clay,  and  humus  mixed  together  forming  it. 

4-The  nature  of  the  soil  depends  to  a  large  extent  upon  the 
nature  of  the  rocks  out  of  which  the  sand  and  the  clay  have  been 
formed. 

5-The  rocks  have  been  broken  up  by  the  action  of  the  air,  the 
freezing  of  the  rain  water  in  the  rocks,  the  grinding  of  ice,  and  the 
down  rush  of  rains  and  streams. 

6-Some  soils  have  been  carried  about  from  one  place  to  another 
and  spread  out  by  the  ice,  snow,  streams,  and  even  to  some  ex- 
tent by  the  wind. 

7-Some  soils  have  been  formed  out  of  the  rocks  beneath  them, 
and  from  the  decay  of  plants  growing  upon  them. 

8-Some  soils,  such  as  swamp  soils,  have  been  formed  almost 
entirely  from  the  decay  of  plants. 

Suggestive:— 

What  class  of  plants  are  most  useful  in  improving  the  soil,  those 
with  shallow  growing  roots  or  those  having  deep  growing  roots? 
Have  you  observed  any  difference  between  the  roots  of  clover  and 
the  roots  of  timothy? 


12 


CHAPTER  III. 

HOW  A  PLANT  GETS  OUT  OF  THE  SEED. 
By    L.  H.  PAMMKI, 

The  seed  is  the  starting  point  of  the  individual  in  that  great 
class  of  plants  known  as  the  Flowering  Plants,  represented  by 
such  common  types  as  the  pea,  bean,  corn,  rose  and  cabb 

i  LEAN.      A    common  garden  bean  may  be  obtained  at  any   time. 
The  seed    is    contained    in  a  pod  to  which  it  is  attached  by  a  small 
seed    stalk.      The    seed    is    smooth,    usually     longer    than  b 
There  are    many  kinds    of  beans,  the    commonest    beau    is    \ 
some  beans  are  bluish  black,  others  are  spotted  wita  b  :ov,  .1.  o 
are    yellowish.      You    will    observe    that   the  seed  lies  o.i  6:ie  side. 
Some  beans  are    flattened    on    the    two    ends    because    they    were 
packed  so  very  closely  in  the  pod  that  they  touched  each  other. 

You  will  observe  that  the  two  sides  are  much,  narrower  .  an  the 
middle.  On  one  side  is  a  pro:iii:i3.it  spot  callel  the  scar  orhilum. 
Fig.  3.  This  is  where  the  seed  stall,  w  is  attached  to  the  see,!  On  one 
side  of  the  scar  you  will  notice  a  very  small  hole  somev.hat  sunken 

in  the  bean,  the  micropyle.  On  the  other 
end  of  the  scar  a  pair  of  slightly  elevat- 
ed points.  We  will  now  soak  the  beans 
in  water  for  half  an  hour.  They  have 
greatly  changed  in  their  outline.  The 
beans  are  no  longer  smooth  and  even  as 
they  were  when  we  first  examined  them. 
They  are  very  much  wrinkled.  This 
wrinkled  appearance  is  clue  to  the  water  which  they  have  taken  up. 
We  can  now  pull  off  the  white  covering  or  shell  as  it  is  com- 
monly called.  This  white  covering  is  known  as  the  seed-coat  or 
testa.  The  purpose  of  this  coat  is  to  protect  the  more  delicate 
parts  of  the  plant  within.  W'e  shall  look  out  for  the  little  plant  tucked 
away  on  the  inside.  We  will  now  examine  some  beans  which  have 
been  in  water  twelve  hours.  The  beans  are  larger;  they  have  taken 
up  much  more  water.  The  ridge  near  the  small  opening  on  one  edge 
of  the  seed  scar  is  prominent.  The  seed  coat  should  now  be  care- 
fully removed.  After  the  removal  of  the  seed-coat  two  large 

Figure  3. 

Bean  seed  in  process  of  germination.  Testa  or  seed- 
coat  broken,  showing  the  cotyledons,'"/.  The  hilum 
or  szar  where  the  seed  was  attached  shown  at  //.  The 
small  opening  in  the  testa,  micropyle  shown  at  '".  At 
the  base  of  the  radicle,  the  caulicle. 


Figure     3. 

Seed  of  bean,  //  hilum  or 
seed  scar,  >"  micropyle.  "  two 
processes  arillate. 


HOW   A    PLANT  GFTS   OUT   OF  THE   SEED. 


fleshy  bodies,  the  seed  leaves  or  cotyledons,  and  a  ridge  may  be 
made  out.  Now  separate  tha  seal  la.ives.  At  one  end  01  the 
bean  is  a  pointed  body,  the  first  root  of  the  plant  (or  radicle), 
below  it  and  connected  with  a  pair  of  small  leaves  is  the  first  stem 
(or  caulicle).  Fig.  3.  The  small  leaves  (or  plumule)  are  snugly 
1  £.cl  cd  le'k\\tcn  the  two  seed  leaves.  Here,  then,  is  the  begin- 
ning of  a  plant. 

2.  FKA.      We  v,  ill  now  rtudy  the  pea  in  the  same  way. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  the  skin  of  the    pea    is    roughened    and 
close  inspection  Vvill     show    an     elongated     tody  on    one    end    of 
the  seed,  (the  caulicle  and  radicle.)      With  a  little  magnifying  lens 
you  will  be  able  10  make  out  the  elevated  processes  which  have  re- 
ceived the  name  of  arillale  processes  as  in  t';e  bean    occurr  0:1    the 
other  end  of  the  hilum  av.My  from    the    micro pyle.      Fig.    4.      The 
two  cotyledons  are  round  and  fleshy,  never 
elongated  as    in    the  bean.       The    plumule 
between  the  cotyledons    consists    of    small 
scale-  like  leaves.      Fig.  5  . 


;      ,-e   4. 


Seed  of  pea  more  or 
less  wrinkled  h  hilum.  '« 
opening  into  5 Bid-  a-  s/nill 
processes  arillate. 


Figure    5. 


Seed  of  pea  unfolded 
showing  plumule  /,  and 
radicle  f,  and  inital  stem 
cr  caulicle  at  < . 


3.  APPLE.    Apples  are  easily  obtained  and  are  interesting  objects  for 
child  study.     The  brown  seeds  of  the  apple  are  very  different  in  shape 
to    the   pea    or    bean.      Fig.  6.      One    end    is 
pointed.      The   large  end  usually  has  a   small 
beak  like  projection  which    is  connected  with 
a  small  ridge  that  comes  from  the  base  of  the 
seed.      You  will  observe  that  the    seed  is    flat 
on  one  side  and  rounded  on  the  other.      Flat- 
tened   on    one  side   because  each    small  com- 
partment of    the  apple  has  two    seeds    which 
are    pressed     together.      The  small  seed-scar 
occurs  in  a  slight  hollow  at  the   pointed     end 
Seed  of  apple,   the  notch   of  the  seed.       The    covering  of    the    seed  (or 
where  it  was  attached.          seed    QQ^     c^    ^    removed    by     caro'uKy 
cutting  the  upper  part  of  the  seed-leaves.    It  can  then  be  pulled  off. 
You  will  notice  that  the  coat  can  then  be  separated  into  two  parts. 
The    outer    part    is    of    a    leathery  nature  and  brown  in  color,  tl  e 
inner  part  is  nearly  colorless  and  not  nearly  so  tough.      The  lover 


HOW   A   PLANT  GETS   OUT  OF  THE   SEED. 

part  of  the  embryo  has  a  small  point  which 
projects  beyond  the  two  seed-leaves.  Fig. 
7.  This  is  a  part  of  the  initial  stem,  with 
the  initial  root  at  the  other  end.  The  plumule 
lies  between  the  two  seed-leaves  at  the  other 
Figure  7.  end  of  the  caulicle,  but  this  is  very  small. 

4    SQUASH.     The  seeds  of  squash  are  ilatten- 

Cotyledons     of    apple  un-          ' 

folded  to  show  plumule/  eel  with  a  rim  or  border  on  the  edges.  The 
and  radicle  r.  ^^  are  longer  than  broad,  and  the  seed 

scar  occurs  in  a  depression  at  the  small  end  of  the  seed.  At  the 
shorter  end  of  the  seed  occurs  a  conspicuous  opening.  Cutting  the 
seed  lengthwise,  this  opening  will  be  seen  to  extend  for  some  little 
distance  along  the  edges  of  the  two  seed-leaves.  Now  remove  the 
white  covering  of  the  seed.  Note  that  the  outer  is  quite  thick  and 
somewhat  brittle.  The  inner  part  is  greenish  and  is  closely  at- 
tached to  the  seed-leaves.  The  small  end  of  the  two  seed-leaves 
is  pointed.  Separate  the  two  seed-leaves  at  the  upper  wide  part 
of  the  seed,  and  notice  that  the  two  seed-leaves  are  fleshy  and 
thick.  The  conical  part  occurs  at  the  pointed  end  of  the  seed. 
This  pointed  end  consists  of  the  very  short  stem,  the  plumule  be- 
tween the  seed  leaves  and  at  one  side  a  small,  fleshy  outgrowth, 
the  "pumpkin  peg".  We  shall  speak  of  this  again. 

HOW  THE   FOOD   IS     STORED. 

In  all  of  the  above  seeds  the  nourish- 
ing material  is  stored  in  the  two  fleshy 
seed-leaves.  In  the  bean,  pea,  and  apple 
this  food  consists  of  starch  and  albumen. 
Albumen  is  like  the  substance  found  in 
flesh.  In  the  pumpkin  this  food  consists  of  pj< 

fat  and  albumen.    This  food  is,  of  course,       Pumpkin  seed 
for  the  purpose  of  nourishing  the  young     gsrmination. 
plant  till  it  is  able    to    take   care    of  itself.      In  the  next    represen- 
tative,   maize,     (corn)  the  greater    part  of    the  seed  is  made  up    of 
material    stored    in    a    special    part    of    the  embryo. 

5  MAIZE.  There  are  many  varieties  of  maize.  These  differ  in  shape, 
size  and  color.  Sweet  corn  is  much  wrinkled  when  dry.  In  common 
dent  the  upper  part  of  the  kernel  has  a  prominent  groove,  hence, 
the  name  dent.  Our  common  pop  corn  is  smooth.  The  little 
point  at  the  side  towards  the  groove  may  be  made  out.  We  shall 
now  place  our  kernel  in  water  for  half  an  hour.  Like  the  bean  the  sur- 
face soon  becomes  wrinkled  because  it  has  taken  up  some  water. 
Leaving  the  kernel  in  water  for  a  longer  time  the  wrinkled  appear- 


HOW  A   PLANT  GETS   OUT  OF  THE   SEED. 


ance  disappears,  it  becomes  swollen  and  much  larger  since  much 
more  water  has  been  absorbed.  We  shall  now  remove  the  shell. 
At  one  side  we  note  the  yellowish,  elongated  body,  the  germ  or  em- 
bryo. Fig.  9.  The  other  part  of  the  seed  is  white  and  mealy.  This  is 
the  endosperm.  From  this  endosperm  corn  starch 
is  made.  This  endosperm  contains  a  nourishing 
substance  which  is  used  to  assist  the  small  embryo 
to  grow.  The  small  embryo  may  be  removed.  It 

/will  be  found  to  consist  of    a  single    seed-leaf,    the 
^  small    initial    root    and    stem,    as    well    as  a  small 
plumule    consisting  of  several  very  small  leaves. 

6.    PEANUT.    The  peanut,  though  commonly  called 
a  nut,    is   not  a    nut  but  a  pod.     It  belongs  to    the 
same  family  that  the  pea  and  bean  do.      While  the 
seeds    of  the    pea  and  bean   are  produced  in  a  pod 
above    the  ground,    those  of    the  peanut    are    pro- 
duced  in    a  pod    which  matures    in  the  soil.      The 
peanut  matures  its  seed  in  a  rather  interesting  way. 
The  flowers  arc  born    in    the   axles    of   the    leaves 
After  fertilization    the    stalk 
pod    into     the 
the 

pod  so  familiar  to  most  persons.  It  is  roughened,  showing  numer- 
ous veins  on  the  outside  and  small  depressions.  On  opening  these 
pods  you  will  find  two  or  three  or  sometimes  only  one  seel  with  a 
brown  covering.  The  brown  covering  is  the  seed-coat  or  testa  and 
is  marked  by  several  longitudinal  deeper  colored  lines.  On  open- 
ing a  seed  one  observes  that  it  has  a  conspicuous  plumule  between 
the  two  cotyledons  with  a  radicle  extending  beyond  the  latter. 
Fig.  10. 

7.  DATE  PALM.  The  seed  of  tha 
date  palm  is  rather  easy  to  obtain 
and  it  is  of  interest  because  its 
reserve  food  is  not  starch,  but 
fats  and  albuminoids,  and  a  sub- 
stance which  is  similar  to  vege- 
table ivory.  The  seed  is  extreme- 
ly difficult  to  cut  on  this  account. 
The  seed  is  elongated  with  a 

Embryo  of  peanut  exposed  showing  two 
cotyledons,  cot\  the  plumule,  /;  and  the 
primary  root  or  radicle,  >'.  Tne  caulicle  or 
initial  stem  just  below  plumule.  ng'ure  IO. 


Figure     9. 

Section     of    corn      -.  ,  , 

showing  embryo.   /  /  Close  to   tile  ground. 
young      leaflet;     p  r      ,  -,  1-1 

yourg  rootlet  Dark-  elongates    and     pusnes    the     little 

ened  portion  is  albu-          -i  TT  -^  i  i  1 

men.  soil.       Here     it      developes     and     produces 


i6 


HOW  A  PLANT  GETS  OUT  OF  THK  SKKI). 


groove  on  one  side.  Fig.  n.  A  cross  section  made  through 
the  seed  will  show  that  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  semi-circle.  Fig.  12. 
Most  of  the  seed  is  made  up  of  the  hard,  horny  albumen  or  en- 
dosperm. The  small  embryo  is  situated  at  one  end  of  the  seed. 

8.  FLAX  SKKD. 
This  is  flattened, 
much  longer  than 
broad,  pointed  at 
the  1  ower  e  nd 
where  the  seed  scar 
occurs.  The  seed 

is     smooth        rnd.  ^- 

rigure  n  Figure    12. 

O\vn       in          Color         Back   and   fpont   yiew   Qf  Cross   section  date  palm    seed 

Now  mrnQtp-n  f-J-»t>     date  palm  seed.  The    greater  part   of  the  seed  is 

hard,  horny  endosperm    albumen 
The  err.bryo  shown  at  e. 


Figure    14. 


Figure     13. 

Flax  with  radicle  or  rcot  r,  in 
upper  figure,  ce>f,  colylec'ons  or 
seed  leaves  ard  p  pkrr.ule. 

seed  with  water;  you  will  notice  that  it 
feels  like  mucilage.  The  outer  part  of  the 
seed-coat  has  the  property  of  swelling 
when  water  is  added.  We  will  cut  the  seed 
lengthwise;  you  will  notice  that  the  brown 

Seed-COat     has     a    light      Colored      substance   testa  with   cotyledon  removed. 

next  to  it;  this  is  nourishing  material  stored  outside  of  the  em- 
bryo and  has  received  the  name  of  albumen  or  endosperm.  This  is 
similar  to  that  found  in  maize,  where  it  is  mealy,  only  it  is  not  so 
abundant.  The  embryo  is  situated  in  the  center  of  the  seed  (Fig. 
13)  and  consists  of  the  two  seed  leaves  called  the  cotyledons, 
and  the  conical  initial  stem  and  rootlet  below,  Fig.  14, 


Flax  seed    in  process  of  ger- 
mination,     ffft,   cotyledons,    /, 


HOW  A  PLANT  GETS  OUT  OF  THE  SEED. 


9.  BUCKWHEAT.  The  so  called  seed  is  not  a  seed  but  is  made 
up  of  a  pod  with  the  seed  closely  united  to  the  pod.  This  union 
is  not  as  close  as  in  the  case  of  corn.  It  is  not,  however,  a  true 
pod.  Buckwheat  kernels  are  usually  brownish  in  color,  though 
some  are  gray.  In  our  common  buckwheat  the  kernel  has  three 

sharp  ridges  running  from 
the  broad  base  to  the  point- 
ed tip.  The  sides  are  some- 
what similar.  In  some 
cases  you  may  be  able  to 
see  three  somewhat  re- 
curved affairs.  Let  us  now 
remove  the  brown  cover- 
ing; underneath  it  you  will 
observe  a  lighter  colored 
part,  the  seed-ccat.  A 
small,  yellowish  brown, 
circular  spot  with  a  darker 
center  occurs  where  the 
seed  was  attached  to  the 
brown  hull.  We  will  now  cut  the  buckwheat  kernels  across  near 
the  base.  Fig.  16.  You  will  observe  that  most  of  the  seed  is 
made  up  of  a  white,  mealy  substance  the  nourishing  material 


Figure    15. 


Buckwheat  in  process  of  germinating:,  r  radi- 
cie  pushirg  its  way  out.  The  Cotyiedons  or 
seed  leaves  ">t.  still  within  coat. 


cot.. 


Figure  16. 

Cross-section  buckwheat,  the  dotted 
portion  being  endosperm  or  albumen 
which  is  food  for  the  growing  embryo 
which  is  folded  inside. 


Figure  17. 

Embryo  of  Buckwheat   showing 
manner  of  folding  in  seed. 


consisting  largely  of  starch  for  the  young  growing  embryo.  This 
is  the  endosperm.  In  this  white  mealy  substance  is  a  small, 
slender  somewhat  folded,  thread-like  body,  the  embryo. 
The  seed  leaves  are  very  thin  and  folded  and  hence  have 
the  appearance  of  being  thread-like  in  cross-section.  Fig.  17. 


iS 


HOW  A  PLANT  GETS  OUT  OF  THE  SEED. 


Figure 


Buckwheat  with  two  cotyledons  or 
ttec-ki  \ii  ur.feldtd. 


Figure  19. 


10.  CASTOR-OIL  BEAN.  The  seed 
of  castor-oil  bean  is  the  source 
from  which  oil  is  derived.  The 
seed  of  our  common  variety  is 
longer  than  broad,  nearly  oval, 
with  a  white  fleshy  outgrowth.  At 
one  side  is  a  prominent  ridge  which 
divides  the  seed  into  two  halves. 
On  the  lower  side  the  seed  is 
rounded  out.  The  seeds  of  our  com- 
mon variety  are  smooth,  shining, 
gray  in  color  marked  with  brown 
spots.  Fig  19.  We  will  now  cut 
the  seed  lengthwise;  the  hard, 
smooth  testa  is  somewhat  brittle. 
The  bulk  of  the  seed  is  made  up  cf 
endosperm  which  is  very  oily,  and 
contains  an  abundance  of  albu- 
men. Starch  is  abssnt.  The  small 
embryo  occurs  in  the  endosperm. 

Fig.   20. 


Figure  20. 


Castor  off  bean.    The  sculptured  testa  or 
seed  coat.    The  caruncle  shown  at  car . 


HOW  PLANTS  GERMINATE. 


Cross-section       S3  a 

castor  oil  bean,  f  elongat- 
ed embryo  surrounded  by 
the  endosperm  and  the  seed 
coats  on  the  outside,  e  «. 

We  shall  now    undertake    to    find    out    some  The  faruncfe ,  car   an  /%ut- 

growth  over  the  hilum  com- 

sirnple  things  about  the  way  plants  germinate,  inerfrom  the  micropyie. 
and  this  can  be  done  only  by  experimenting.  This  is  the  only 
way  that  we  can  acquire  the  information  we  want.  For  these  pur- 
poses it  will  be  neccessary  for  the  teacher  to  get  a  box  or  pan 
three  or  four  feet  long,  two  feet  wide  and  four  inches  deep. 
Fill  this  with  three  inches  of  sand,  moisten  and  plant  with  two 
dozen  beans  jind  two  dozen  peas.  The  box  should  be  kept  at  a 
comfortable  temperature  during  the  day, — a  room  in  which  child 


HOW  A  PLANT  GETS  OUT  OF  THE  SEED.  1Q 

ren  are  comfortable.  At  night  the  box  should  not  be  allowed 
to  become  cold  as  this  will  retard  the  germination.  If  the  room 
becomes  cold  during  the  night  protect  the  box  by  covering,  or 
keep  in  a  warm  place.  Watch  changes  from  day  to  day  and 
note  when  the  first  plants  appear  above  the  ground. 

1.  BEAN.      The  first    thing  observed  in  the  bean  is  a  small  arch, 
neither  the  seed-coat  or  seed  leaves  can  be  seen,   but  a    little    later 
the    large,    fleshy    seed-leaves    partially  show.      In  some  cases  the 
seed-coat  may  remain  attached  but  generally  this    remains    in    the 
soil.      As  the    young    plant    has  pulled  itself  out  of  this  protecting 
covering  the  seed-leaves  and  stem  soon  straighten  up.     The  small, 
delicate    plumule    spoken    of    in  connection  with  the  seed  is  much 
longer  and  may  be  seen  beyond  the  cotyledon.      A  little    later    the 
seed-leaves    are    pointed    upward.      The    plumule    consists  of  two 
expanded  leaves  and  a  bud  at  the  base.      If  you  will  now  carefully 
remove  one  of    these  seedlings  from  the  soil  the  small  root  may  be 
seen.      Coming    from    this    root  are  small  fibers,  the  rootlets.      At 
the  end  of  the  main  root  is  a  small  point,  the    root-cap,    free    from 
sand.      The  root  pushes  its  way  through  the  soil  by  means  of    this 
cap.      Growth,  however,  does  not  take  place  at  the    root-cap,    but 
at  a  short  distance  back  from  the  tip. 

2.  PKA.      In    germinating    the    pea    behaves  very    different    from 
the    bean.      The    first    thing  observed    is    the    arch,    but    the    two 
seed-leaves  remain  in  the  ground.      They  do  not  perform  the  func- 
tion of  leaves  as  do  the  seed-leaves  of  the  bean.  ,The  little  plumule  is 
arched  till  it  is  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  when   gradually  it 
straightens  out.      The    arch    of    the  bean  and  pea  protect  the  deli- 
cate structure  of  the  plant.      In  an  older  pea  plant  small  leaves    or 
scales  may  be  seen  at  the  lower  end  near  the  ground.      Further  up 

the  stem  the  leaves  gradually  become  larger. 
An  examination  of  an  older  plant  with  the 
seed  still  attached  will  show  that  the  sesd- 
leaves  are  withered.  What  has  become  of 
this  material  stored  in  the  fleshy  seed-leaves? 
It  has  been  used  as  food  by  the  growing 
plant.  You  will  observe  in  peas  which  are 
beginning  to  germinate  that  a  slender  cylin- 
drical body  is  making  its  way  into  the  soil. 
This  is  the  primary  root.  Fig.  21.  It  is  not  Mgure  21. 

straight,    but  curved.      If   you  will  watch    its'  Pand  pilule  at/ radicl" 


2O 


HOW  A  PLANT  GETS  OUT  OF  THE  SEED. 


growth  you  can  easily  see  that  it  goes  first  in 
one  direction,  then  in  another.  Fig.  22.  A 
litde  later  several  rootlets  make  their  appear- 
ance. In  other  cases  several  small  rootlets 
make  their  appearance  close  to  where  the 
primary  root  first  appeared.  Near  ths  end 
of  the  primary  root  and  the  rootlets,  very 
minute  hairs  can  be  made  out;  these  are 
called  root-hairs.  The  tip  of  the  root,  as 
in  the  bean  does  not  contain  these  root  hairs. 
This  root-cap  serves  as  in  the  bean,  to  guide 
the  root  in  the  soil. 

3.  Ai-5'LE.      The  apple   germinates  much  as 


Figure  22. 


Pea   in    process     of  grer- 
.    .  mination.      />     plumule,     r 

the  bean,  but  in  this  case  the  seeds    require  a    radicle. 

long  period  of  rest.  The 
seeds  will  not  germinate  im- 
mediately when  they  are 
taken  out  of  the  apple  in  the 
fall.  The  teacher  should  put 
a  lot  of  apple  ? tec's  m  a  box 
cover  them  with  a  little  soil, 
place  the  box  where  it  will 
not  freeze  or  in  a  cellar.  Dur- 
ing the  month  of  April  these 
seeds  may  be  planted  as  were 
the  beans  and  peas.  In  the 
course  of  a  week  the  seeds 
will  germinate  much  as  the 
bean.  The  two  seed-leaves 
are  pushed  out  of  the  soil  and 
expand.  The  root  pushes 
down  into  the  soil.  In  a 
short  time  successive  leaves 
are  formed. 

4.  SQUASH.  The  seeds 
should  be  planted  in  a  box 
of  earth.  In  the  course  of 
twro  days  an  examination 
should  be  made  of  some  of 
the  seeds.  If  the  conditions 
have  been  very  favorable  you 
will  observe  that  the  seed  is 


Figure  23. 


Germinating:  pea  after  all  the  nourishment  in 
the  seed  has  been  used.  ''  leaf.  '>'"  tendril  at 
the  end  of  leaf  which  enables  the  plant  to  climb. 


HOW    A    PLANT    GETS    OUT    OF    THE   SEED. 


21 


very  much  swollen  and  that  where  the  seed-scar  occurs  the  seed- 
coat  is  split.  A  day  later  a  small  root  pushes  its  way  out.  As 
this  root  becomes  longer  3  on  will  notice  a  small  projection,  the 
squash  peg",  which  was  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  seed. 
Fig.  24.  In  four  days  this  root  is  much  longer  than  the  seed. 


Figure  25.  ' 


Pumpkin  germinating  showing 
more  advanced  stage,  p p  pump- 
kin peg. 


Figure  24. 

Pumpkin  in  process  of 
germinating,  trying  to  ex- 
tricate itself  from  its  seed- 
coats.  //  pumpkin  peg. 

The  seed-coat  is  forced  apart,  and    "the 

seed  leaves  are  trying  to  "back  out  of  the 

seed."     The  progressive  changes  should 

be  carefully  watched   and    drawn.      The 

first  root  has  produced  smaller  roots.  Fig.  24. 
These  push  their  way  through  the  soil,  now 
in  one  direction,  then  in  another.  If  you  will 
now  examine  the  seeds  which  have  not  been 
disturbed  you  wTill  notice  jthe  arch  and  a  part 
of  the  two  seed-leaves  trying  to  push  trjem- 
selves  above  the  ground.  A  little  later  they 
have  succeeded,  the  small  stem  is  curved,  the 
two  seed-leaves  are  horizontal  with  their  ends 
partially  spread  apart.  Let  us  wait  a  little 
longer.  You  will  notice  that  the  stem  is 
slightly  curved,  the  small  leaves  are  straight. 
Fig.  26.  The  seed  leaves  gradually  unfold 
and  the  little  plumule  may  be  seen.  The 
first  real  leaf  grows  rapidly,  followed  by 
others. 


Figure  26. 


Squash  with  two  cotyle- 
dons. Seed  leaves  folded 
lengthwise. 


22 


HOW    A    PLANT    GETS    OUT  OF  THE   SEED. 


5.  MAIZE.  The  embryo  of  corn  is  much  more  complex  than  the 
pea,  bean,  apple  or  squash.  In  a  previous  paragraph  I  called  at- 
tention to  the  embryo  with  its  single  cotyledon,  the  large  amount 
of  food  found  in  the  mealy  part  of  the  maize  which  the  embryo 
uses  in  its  development.  Maize  kernels  which  have  been  placed 
in  sand  and  kept  in  a  warm  place  may  be  examined  in  forty-eight 
hours.  The  embryo  is  much  larger  than  the  dry  grains  because  of 
the  water  it  has  taken  up.  The  seed-leaf  never  leaves  the  kernel, 
but  the  plumule  soon  elongates  in  the  presence  of  moisture  and 
heat.  The  radicle  at  the  lower  end  also  elongates.  A  maize  ker- 
nel three  or  four  days  in  the  soil  shows  a  small  projection.  If 
this  is  carefully  laid  out  the  student  will  be  able  to  see  that  the 
plumule  consists  of  a  succession  of  very  small  leaves  in  specimens 
that  are  well  out  of  the  ground.  The  small  leaves  have  flattened 
out,  the  lower  leaf  is  nothing  but  a  scale,  not  green  like  the  ex- 
panded leaf.  Let  us  now  examine  some  of  the  plants  with  good 
developed  roots.  Fig.  27.  From  the  lower  end  of  the 


Figure  28. 


Figure  27. 


Seed  with  weak  germinaVon  excep: 
rop  corn  on  the  right.  -  scutellum 
underneath;  <  plumule. 


root  in  the  seed,  numerous  small  fibrous 
roots  may  be  seen.  These  produce  other 
small  rootlets.  The  root-cap  may  be  seen 
at  the  tip,  and  back  of  it  the  small  root- 
hairs  which  have  fastened  themselves  to  the  soil  particles,  with 
a  kind  of  mucilage  they  have  formed.  Let  us  examine  other 
seedlings.  You  are  sure  to  find  some  where  roots  come  from 
the  seed  near  the  plumule. 

In  others,    especially  such  as    are    germinated  on    moist  paper, 


Germination  of  good  seed. 
r  primary  root  in  figure  to 
tha  right  with  root  hairs.  ' 
secondary  roots;  /  plumule. 


HOW  A     PLANT    GETS    OUT    OF  THE   SEED. 


the  primary  root  becomes  very  long,  containing  few  rootlets.  The 
primary  root  is  not  straight,  but  bent  first  in  one  direction  then  in 
another.  Fig.  28.  If  these  seedlings  are  placed  on  moist  sand,  the 
top  bends  toward  the  ground  and  soon  forces  its  way  into  the  loose 
sand.  Examine  young  corn  plants  two  or  three  weeks  old  and 
you  may  be  able  to  make  out  the  first  joint  above  the  ground. 
Fig.  29.  If  you  will  watch  the  progress  of  these  you  can  see  small 

rootlets  coming  from 
this  joint.  A  corn 
plant  early  begins  to 
form  its  air  roots.  These 
roots  are  directed  to- 
wards the  earth.  When 
they  strike  it,  small  root 
hairs  and  small  rootlets 
are  formed. 


Figure  29. 


Figure  30. 


Peanut   in   process    of  germ" 

Germinating    corn.     Nutritious  material  in  seed    ex-      natjOn.    /plumule;     rat    cot\l; 
«    r  nodal  roots.  dons. 


24  HOW  A  PLANT  GETS  OUT  OF  THE  SEED. 

6.  MAPLES.  The  maples  are  very  suggestive.  Our  common 
soft  or  silver  maple  drops  its  fruit  during  the  month  of  May  and 
who  has  not  observed  the  keys  of  this  fruit  in  a  grassy  lawn,  with 
the  heavy  end  sticking  in  the  grass?  The  two  fleshy  seed  leaves 
are  broad  and  short,  straight  except  a  small  fold  near  the  top. 
They  do  not  appear  above  the  ground  as  is  usual  in  other  maples. 
The  small  root  pushes  its  way  into  the  soil  while  the  small  stem 
with  its  plumule  rises  above  the  ground  where  the  small  leaves 
unfold.  The  red  maple  and  black  maple  have  crumpled  embryos 
with  considerable  development  of  caulicle.  The  black  maple, 
which  is  not  uncommon  in  this  state,  may  be  obtained  in  quantity 
during  the  month  of  May,  showing  all  stages  of  germination.  We 
observe  that  the  black  maple  does  not  germinate  till  spring.  The 
two  cotyledons  appear  above  the  ground,  the  short  stem  below, 
the  plumule  elongates  and  soon  produces  fully  developed  leaves. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

A  SUGGESTIVE  READING    LESSON. 

SOME  FEATURES  OF     PLANT  GROWTH. 

JAMES  ATKINSON,  Ames,  Iowa. 

With  the  exception  of  products  of  the  sea  the  entire  food  supply 
for  mankind  is  derived  from  the  plant  world.  Whether  it  be 
breadstuffs  or  meats,  they  are  alike  the  finished  product  of  vege- 
tation. Nature  has  made  provision  for  the  support  of  primitive 
man,  but  as  civilization  advances  the  art  of  man  is  used  to  multi- 
ply the  products  of  vegetation,  both  in  variety  and  quantity.  It 
matters  not  whether  our  lot  be  cast  in  a  great  metropolis  or  on  the 
prairie  plains,  our  vital  concern  in  the  products  of  vegetation  is 
the  same  and  should  be  sufficient  to  stimulate  us  to  acquire  a 
knowledge  of  the  habits  of  growing  plants,  and  the  characteristics 
of  some  of  the  world's  staple  crops. 

ORGANS  OF  VEGETATION:— If  a  seed  is  placad  in  a  soil  under  cer- 
tain conditions  of  warmth  and  moisture,  green  leaves  soon  make 
their  appearance  above  the  ground  while  roots  develop  and  pene- 
trate the  soil.  These,  together  with  the  stem,  constitute  the 
organs  of  vegetation.  It  is  our  purpose  to  investigate  some  of 
the  problems  connected  with  the  development  of  these  organs. 

COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS.  All  plants  are  not  alike  in  composition, 
but  in  a  general  way  they  are  alike  in  being  composed  of  water 
and  dry  matter.  Nine-tenths  of  such  crops  as  potatoes,  turnips, 
and  beets  are  composed  of  water. 

To  find  out  whether  or  not  plants  contain  water,  a  simple  ex- 
periment may  be  tried. 

Pull  about  a  pound  of  green  grass,  weigh  it  carefully,  then  place  it  in  an 
oven.  Leave  it  there  until  it  seems  perfectly  dry,  then  remove  and  weigh 
again.  The  loss  in  weight  represents  the  amount  of  water  the  plant  con- 
tains. 

WATER.      From  what  source  is  this  water   obtained  and    of   what 

value  is  it  to  a  plant?  As  the  roots  penetrate  the  soil  they  con- 
stantly come  in  contact  with  a  certain  amount  of  water.  Some- 
times this  is  present  in  sufficient  quantities  to  completely  saturate 
the  soil,  while  at  other  times  the  soil  may  scarcely  be  damp.  It 
passes  through  the  roots  and  stem  and  is  evaporated  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  leaves.  In  its  passage  through  the  plant  it  carries 
with  it  plant  food  from  the  soil,  and  also  carries  the  food  formed 
within  the  plant  to  where  it  is  required. 

Besides  being  a  vehicle  of  *food,  it  has  other  functions  to  pej- 
form.  In  the  first  place  its  passage  from  the  cool  soil  into  the 


26  SOME    EEATURES  OF   PLANT  GROWTH. 

plant  tends  to  regalate  the  temperature.  Evaporation  is  a  cooling 
process,  and  as  this  is  constantly  taking  place  from  the  surface  it 
has  much  to  do  with  keeping'  the  plant  cool  in  the  presence  of  direct 
sunlight. 

In  order  to  prove  that  evaporation  does  take  place  from  the  surface  of 
all  green  plants,  take  a  quart  or  pint  jar,  remove  the  cover  and  place  it, 
mouth  downward  over  some  green  grass  in  the  presence  of  sunlight.  It 
will  be  found  that  moisture  will  collect  in  the  inside  of  the  jar  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  form  large  drops. 

DRY  MATTER.  This  is  the  part  of  the  plant  that  remains  after 
the  water  is  driven  off.  It  is  composed  of  two  parts,  one  of  which 
is  given  off  when  the  plant  is  burned,  while  the  other  remains  be- 
hind in  the  form  of  aslies. 

A  very  simple  experiment  will  illustrate  this  point  quite  clearly. 

Take  the  dry  grass  used  in  the  previous  experiment  and  place  it  in  an 
iron  vessel  on  a  stove  or  in  some  way  bring  it  in  contact  with  a  good  fire. 
It  will  be  found  that  only  a  small  portion,  the  ash,  remains. 

We  spoke  about  the  source  of  water  in  plant  life.  We  shall 
now  enquire  into  the  source  from  which  the  remaining  substances 
were  obtained.  We  are  all  well  aware  that  the  leaves  of  plants 
are  constantly  surrounded  by  atmospheric  air.  This  air  contains 
a  substance  known  as  Carbonic  acid  which  is  taken  up  by  the 
leaves,  of  the  plant  and  becomes  part  of  the  structure  of  the  leaves, 
stem,  and  root.  The  carbon  taken  from  this  source  forms  about 
half  of  the  dry  matter  of  the  plant.  Oxygen,  Nitrogen,  and  Hy- 
drogen are  other  elements  that  enter  into  the  composition  of  the 
part  of  the  plant  that  burns.  The  first  of  these  is  taken  partly 
from  the  soil,  being  contained  in  the  water  that  surrounded  the 
roots.  The  ash,  or  that  portion  of  the  plant  remaining  after  burn- 
ing, forms  but  a  small  portion  of  the  entire  plant.  It  is  composed 
of  iron,  potash,  lime,  magnesium  and  phosphoric  acid.  These 
form,  as  it  were,  the  frame  work  around  which  the  whole  fabric  of 
the  plant  is  constucted.  They  are  usually  present  in  soil  water, 
and  enter  the  plant  through  the  medium  of  the  roots.  The  pre- 
sence or  absence  of  these  substances  in  suitable  form  constitutes 
the  difference  between  a  rich  or  poor  soil. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  observed  that  the  food  ma- 
terials enter  the  plant  in  the  form  of  a  fluid,  either  a  liquid  as  water, 
or  a  gas  as  carbonic  acid  and  oxygen.  It  was  long  thought  that 
small  particles  of  the  soil  entered  the  roots,  but  it  is  now  known 
that  this  is  not  the  case. 


'SOME   FEATURES  OF  PLANT  GROWTH. 


Figure   31. 

Showing  root  growth  of  the  corn  plant. 


28  SOME  FEATURES  OF  PLANT  GROWTH. 

SEED  PRODUCTION.  The  primary  object  of  most  farm  crops  is 
the  production  of  seed.  The  corn  plant  is  familiar  to  most  of  us, 
so  we  will  use  it  to  illustrate  the  process  of  seed  production. 
During  the  first  few  weeks  the  energy  of  the  plant  is  devote  1  to 
the  production  of  leaves,  roots,  and  stem.  When  these  have  at- 
tained a  degree  of  maturity,  there  appears  at  the  top  of  the  stem, 
what  is  known  as  the  tassel,  which  is  indicated  by  the  letter  (a)  in 
Figure  31.  Midway  between  the  root  and  the  tassel  appears  the 
silk,  indicated  by  the  letter  (c)  in  Figure  31.  These  constitute 
the  flower  of  the  corn  plant.  At  a  certain  period  in  the  develop- 
ment of  these,  there  is  given  off  a  fine  dust-like  substance  froTi  tli3 
tassel.  This  is  carried  by  the  wind  and  brought  in  contact  with 
the  silk,  which  is  composed  of  many  threads.  These  little  dust- 
like  particles,  or  pollen  grains,  send  out  tubes  which  pass  down 
the  silk  threads  until  they  penetrate  the  body  of  the  ear,  (b)  Fig- 
ure 31.  Here  a  union  takes  place,  known  as  fertilization,  which 
gives  rise  to  a  kernel  of  corn  for  every  thread  of  silk.  Figure  31, 
then,  represents  a  partially  matured  ear  showing  how  the  silk 
threads  are  attached  to  the  grains  or  kernels.  In  case  of  other 
cereals,  such  as  wheat,  oats  or  barley,  fertilization  is  in  no  way 
dependent  upon  the  wind,  as  both  parts  of  the  flower  are  within 
the  same  glume  or  chaff, 

ROOTS.  In  discussing  the  habits  of  plants  it  would  be  a  grave 
omission  to  omit  their  root  development.  It  is  the  common  be- 
lief of  many  persons  that  the  roots  of  plants  occupy  only  the  first 
few  inches  of  the  surface  soil.  For  the  purpose  of  finding  out  the 
extent  of  root  development,  some  corn  and  grass  plants  were  taken 
from  the  soil  with  much  care  in  order  to  avoid  breaking  the  roots. 
Figure  31  shows  two  hills  of  corn  that  were  taken  from  the  soil  and 
placed  in  a  frame  where  the  soil  was  afterwards  washed  from  the 
roots.  The  cut  shows  the  root  development  to  a  depth  of  fifty-six 
inches  and  even  at  this  depth  some  of  the  roots  were  broken  off, 
showing  that  they  penetrate  to  a  greater  depth  than  this. 

Figure  32  represents  a  bunch  of  Kentucky  blue  grass  taken  from 
the  soil  in  the  same  manner,  which  shows  the  root  development 
to  a  depth  of  three  feet. 

But  such  root  development  as  is  above  described  cannot  take 
place  unless  the  soil  is  in  the  proper  condition,  and  without  a  per- 
fect root  system,  plants  cannot  reach  their  fullest  development. 
If  the  reader's  interest  has  been  aroused  in  this  matter,  it  would 
be  well  to  inquire  into  the  various  conditions  of  the  soil  which  has 
so  much  to  do  with  the  perfect  or  imperfect  development  of  plants. 


SOME   FEATURES   OF  PLANT    GROWTH. 


w?'4fa\  'i*v^ 


'A 


Figure    32. 

How  the  roots   of  blue  grass  run  down  into  the  soil. 


CHAPTER  V. 

HOW    TO    OBSERVE    INSECTS. 
H.    E.  SUMMERS,.  Ames,    Iowa. 


Insects,  in  consequence  of  their  abundance,  their  convenient 
size,  and  the  ease  with  which  they  may  be  kept  alive  in  the  school 
room,  furnish  perhaps  the  best  material  with  which  to  begin  the 
study  of  zoology  with  young  pupils.  They  may  be  studied  in 
many  different  ways,  each  of  which  will  lead  to  the  discovery  of 
new  facts  concerning  them  and  bring  us  nearer  to  a  full  know- 
ledge of  their  relation  to  the  entire  living  world.  Their  structure 
as  illustrated  in  various  selected  forms  may  be  investigated,  and 
by  a  comparison  of  these  forms  the  student  will  come  to  appreciate 
the  meaning  of  homology,  and  when  the  reason  for  this  homology 
is  learned,  to  understand  the  principles  in  accordance  with  which 
animals  are  classified.  Again,  observation  of  the  habits,  especially 
of  aquatic  insects,  furnish  a  never  ending  source  of  delight  and  in- 
struction to  children.  Last  to  be  here  mentioned,  their  metamor- 
phoses, or  the  transformations  that  they  pass  through  before 
reaching  the  adult  state,  bring  the  pupil  in  contact  with  facts  so 
wonderful  that  an  interest  is  often  aroused  that  lasts  through  life. 

This  paper  is  devoted  to  some  hints  on  what  and  how  to  observe 
certain  facts  illustrating  more  particularly  this  last  topic.  And  it 
should  be  fully  understood  that  these  suggestions  are  for  the  use 
of  the  teacher,  not  of  the  pupil.  Most  of  what  is  here  dogmati- 
cally stated,  the  teacher  should,  by  judicious  questioning,  lead  the 
pupils  to  discover  for  themselves. 

Throughout  the  entire  summer  there  may  be  seen  flitting  about 
in  gardens,  especially  around  the  cabbage  and  other  plants 
belonging  to  the  mustard  family,  medium  sized,  white  butter- 
flies, usually  with  a  few  black  spots,  and  often  slightly  tinged 
with  yellow.  There  may  be  two  different  kinds  of  these;  the  one 
usually  most  common  is  known  as  the  cabbage  butterfly,  the  other 
as  the  checkered  white.  Figure  33.  The  former  is  the  one  here 
considered,  although  most  of  what  is  said  applies  equally  well  to 
the  latter. 


HOW  TO  OBSEKVE  INSECTS.  31 


Figure    33. 

Checkered  white,  male.  Checkered  whita,  female.  r 

Closely  observed  they  will  be  seen  to  alight  occasionally  on  a 
leaf,  usually  on  the  under  side,,  and  then  to  fly  away  to  i  another 
plant.  If  the  exact  place  on  the  leaf  where  one  alights  be  care- 
fully noted  and  then  examined  after  the  butterfly  has  departed, 
there  will  generally  be  found  a  single  egg  that  has  been  attached 
there  by  the  insect.  This  is  of  a  light  yellow  color,  and  on  examir 
nation  with  a  leiise  is  seen  to  be  most  beautifully  and  regularly 
marked  with  longitudinal  ribs.  If  possible,  the  pupils  should 
watch  the  butterflies  laying  their  eggs  in  the  field.  In  any  case', 
there  should  be  brought  into  the  school-room,  in  a  pot  or  box,  one 
or  more  living  cabbage  plants  on  which  eggs  have  been  deposited. 

In  a  few  days  there  hatches  from  the  egg  a  tiny,  green,  worm- 
like  larva  of  caterpiller.  Being  possessed  of  a  good  appetite,  it 
eats  the  shell  from  which,  it  has  just  issued,  and  then  attacks  the 
substance  of  the  cabbage.'-  While  small  it  can  eat  only  the  surface 
of  the  leaf,  but  it  does  this  with  such  assiduity  that  it  soon  increases 
twenty  fold  in  size,  and  is  in  a  short  time  able  to  bite  through  the 
entire  thickness  of  the  leaf.  It  is  especially  active  at  night,  eating 
then  almost  continuously,  but  in  the  day  time  it  is  satisfied  with 
only  an  occasional  meal.  Between  these  periods  of  feasting  it  lies 
quietly  stretched  along  a  leaf  vein  of  about  its  own  "diameter,  and 
so  exactly  does  its  color  resemble  that  of  the  cabbage  that  it  is 
difficult  for  us  to  detect  it.  We  can  therefore  understand  that  it 
commonly  escapes  the  eyes  of  the  birds  that  would  think  it  a  dain- 
ty morsel  for  themselves  or  their  young. 


32  HOW  TO  OBSERVE  INSECTS. 

As  its  body  increases  in  size,  its  skin,  unable  to  stretch  much, 
becomes  too  small  and  the  larva  is  obliged  to  shed  it.  As  the 
time  to  molt  approaches,  the  larva  spins  a  carpet  of  silk  on  the 
leaf  to  give  it  a  firai  foot-hold  and  then  becomes  quiet.  Its  in- 
action is  occasionlly  interrupted  by  struggles  intended  to  loosen 
from  its  body  the  skin  it  is  about  to  cast.  Finally  the  skin  bursts 
open  on  the  back  and  the  inse'ct  struggles  free  from  it.  After 
making  a  meal  off  the  cast  skin  it  remains  quiet  for  a  time  to  give 
the  new  skin  a  chance  to  harden.  It  then  begins  to  eat  and  grow 
until  it  is  time  for  it  to  molt  again.  When  it  has  grown  to  its  full 
size,  of  about  one  and  one  half  inches  in  length,  it  usually  leaves 
the  cabbage  and  seeks  the  underside  of  a  board,  fence  rail,  or 
other  convenient  object. 

If  observations  are  being  carried  on  in  the  school-room,  the 
plant  on  which  the  larvae  are  feeding  should  be  placed  in  a  box 
with  its  front  closed  by  mosquito  netting  before  they  have  reached 
taeir  full  size;  otherwise  they  are  liable  to  wand.er  so  far  as  to  be 
lost. 

Having  found  an  object  from  the  underside  of  which  it  can  sus- 
pend itself,  it  spins  a  band  of    silken  threads    crosswise  under    its 
back,  attaching  the  band  at  each  end  to  the  object  it  is  resting  be- 
neath.      Figure    34.       A 
silken  pad   is    also    spun 
at  its  tail    end.      It    then 
sheds    its    skin  in  some- 
what   the    same    manner 
that  has   been    described 

for    its    ordinary     molts, 

,      e     •       ,  Figure  34.. 

but  instead  of    simply   a 

£       ,,  Pupa  of  cabbage  butterfly,     afier  Scuddar. 

large  larva  coming  forth, 

there  appears  a  smooth,  shiny  object,  without  any  external  appen- 
dages, known  as  a  pupa.  During  the  process  of  shedding  its 
larval  skin,  the  tail  end  of  the  pupa  is  firmly  attached  to  the  silken 
pad  already  mentioned,  and  the  silken  loop  extending  crosswise 
under  its  back  like  a  hammock  suspends  it  with  sufficient  security. 

The  pupa  is  incapable  of  any  movement  beyond  a  slight  twitch- 
ing when  disturbed.  The  general  color  of  the  pupa  is  usually 
light  gray  but  it  varies  often  to  yellowish  green;  numerous  brown- 
ish dots  are  scattared  over  its  surface. 

The  pupa  state  lasts,  in  summer,  for  from  ten  to  twelve  days. 
Its  transparency  is  then  seen  to  change  somewhat,  and  soon  after 
the  skin  bursts  open  on  the  back,  and  the  adult  butterfly,  known 


HOW  TO  OBSERVE  INSECTS. 


33 


as  an  imago,  issues.  At  first  its  wings  are  merely  small  soft  pads, 
but  if  it  has  a  free  chance  to  crawl  up  some  vertical  surface  they 
will  be  seen  to  grow  to  their  full  size  in  a  very  short  time,  and 
after  a  while  to  become  dry  and  brittle.  The  butterfly  is  now 
ready  to  take  flight,  to  seek  its  mate,  and  soon  after,  if  a  female, 
to  lay  its  eggs  on  the  cabbages  for  another  generation. 


Figure    35. 

Cabbage  butterfly—larva  and  imago. 


34  HOW     TO     OIJSKRVK     IXSKCT?. 

Three  broods  are  usually  produced  in  our  northern  states  during 
the  season.  The  larvae  of  the  last  ones  reach  full  size  and  change 
to  pupae  in  the  autumn,  Whence  issue  the  first  brood  of  imagoes 
the  following  spring. 

The  danger  to  the  larva  of  the  cabbage  butterfly  from  the  at- 
tacks of  birds  has  already  been  referred  to.  Birds,  however,  are 
not  its  only  enemies.  There  are  certain  parasitic  insects  related 
to  the  bees  and  wasps  that  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  butterfly  larva 
soon  after  it  hatches.  The  young  of  the  parasite  0:1  hatching  bore 
into  the  body  of  the  butterfly  larva  and  feed  upon  it  until  they 
reach  maturity.  _  As  they  are  careful  to  avoid  any  of  the  vital 
organs  of  their  host  the  latter  does  not  die,  but  about  the  time 
that  it  should  pupate  there  issues  frgm  its  body  a  number  of  small 
larvae  which  spin  cocoons  on  its  surface.  In  a  few  days  there 
issues  from  these,  adult  parasites  like  those  that  laid  their  eggs  on 
the  butterfly  larva.  Bes-ides  these  parasites  and  birds  both  the 
larva  and  imago  are  preyed  upon  by  many  other  insects.  A  bac- 
terial disease  likewise  attacks  and  oftens  destroys  the  larva. 

The  transformation  passed  through  by  the  butterfly  in  passing 
from  the  egg  to  the  imago  is  such  that  none  would  suspect  from 
an  examination  of  the  larvae,  pupa,  and  imago  that  they  were  dif- 
ferent stages  of  the  same  insect.  Insects  in  which  the  different 
stages  are  so  entirely  different  are  said  to  have  a  complete  meta- 
morphosis. Butterflies  and  moths  both  have  a  complete  metamor- 
phosis. In  these  the  larva  is  commonly  called  a  caterpillar.  Two- 
winged  flies,  whose  larvae  are  maggots;  beetles,  whose  larvae  are 
commonly  called  grubs,  as  well  as  bees  and  wasps  all  have  a  com- 
plete metamorphosis. 

In  certain  other  insects,  however  of  which  the  grasshopper  may 
furnish  a  typical  example,  (see  next  lesson)  the  insect  that  hatches 
from  the  egg  , is  in  general  form  similar  to  the  .adult.  That  is,  it 
possesses  six  legs,  antennae,  commonly  called  "horns,"  on  its  head 
and  in  a  division  of  its  body  into  head,  thtfrax',  and  abdomen,  is 
similar  to  the  adult;  §"  The  chief,  difference  is  that  it  lacks  wings. 
A  young  insect  that  thus  resembles  itsC  parent  is  called  a  nymph. 
As  it  grows  it  gft'e'ds  its  skin  or  molts  at  frequent  intervals.  At 
each  molt  it  gradually  becomes  more  and  more  like  the  adult  in 
size  and  in  the  proportion  of  the  different  parts  of  its  body.  Fin- 
ally at  the  last  molt  it  changes  into  the  imago. 

Inrects  which  thus  resemble  their  parents  in  all  stages  from  the 
egg  upward  are  said  to  have  an  incomplete  metamorphosis:.  Be- 
sides crickets,  cock-roaches,  and  other  forms  related  to  the  grass- 
hopper the  true  bugs  and  some  less  well  known  insects  have  in- 
complete metamorphoses. 


35 

CHAPTER    VI. 

A  NATURE  STUDY  LESSON  ON  THE  GRASSHOPPER. 
By  JULIA    E.  ROGKRS,  East  High  School,'  Des   Moines. 

The  day  the  fall  term  began  the  teacher  asked  the  children  to 
fetch  in  some  live  grasshoppers  and  put  them  into  a  cage  that 
stood  on  her  desk.  It  was  a  strange'  looking  cage,  and  made  in 
the  following  way:  A  strip  of  wire  netting  36  inches  long  and  9 
inches  wide,  was  cut  from  an  old  screen  door.  This  strip  was 
bent  so  as  to  form  the  four  sides  of  a  nine  inch  cube.  T\vo  pieces 
each  9  inches  square,  were  set  in  to  form  the  top  aud  bottom.  The 
corner  seams  were  sewed  with  a  wire  thread  over  and  over.  A 
round  hole  two  inches  in  diameter  was  cut  in  the  top,  and  a  three 
inch  disc  of  cardboard  formed  the  cover,  held  in  place  by  a  brass 
paper  fastener.  (The  teacher  and  the  little  boy  where  she  boarded 
made  this  cage  on  Saturday. ) 

The  children  came  on  the  second  morning  and  nearly  all  had 
"hoppers"  to  slip  into  the  cage.  There  were  several  of  the  ordi- 
nary red  legged  variety,  a  few  delicate-looking  green  ones,  a  big, 
striped  fellow  which  looked  muscular  and  pugnacious,  and  didn't 
like  the  cage  at  all.  When  the  bell  rang,  and  the  opening  exercises 
were  over  the  following  conversation  took  place: 

•'Did  you  have  any  trouble  finding  grasshoppers  this  morning?" 

The  tone  and  manner  of  the  teacher  were  so  pleasant  and  re- 
assuring that  the  children  were  soon  at  their  ease  and  ready  to  tell 
their  experience.  John  was  not  shy,  and  the  teacher  said,  nodd- 
ing to  him,  "Tell  us  how  you  got  the  big  one." 

"He  was  in  the  road  and  I  almost  stepped  on  him.  He  made  a 
loud  snapping  noise  as  he  flew  away  and  I  lost  him;  he  is  just  the 
color  of  the  road.  But  I  ran  him  down  and  caught  him  under  my 
hat." 

Mary.      "I  heard  mine  singing  in  the  grass,  and  went  up    close, 
but  it  stopped.      I  looked  a  long  time    and  at  last    it  began    again, 
and  I  saw  it  on  a  grass  stem.      It  was  just  the  same  color.     I  grab 
bed  it  before  it  had  time  to  get  away,  and    brought  it  to    school  in 
my  handkerchief." 

Alice.  "I  got  the  brown  one  last  night  on  our  grape  vine.  It 
was  hard  to  find,  too,  'cause  its  the  same  color  as  the  vine." 

Jim.  "I  came  acrost  Gray's  niedder,  and  I  found  this  fer  yuh," 
and  he  laid  in  the  teacher's  hand  a  piece  of  sod  in  which  was  a 
large  mass  of  eggs,  cemented  together,  and  packed  away  for  safe 
keeping. 


36  A   NATURE   STUDY  LESSON   ON     THE   GRASSHOPPER. 

Tr.  "Thank  you,  Jim,  I  didn't  expect  such  good  luck  as  to 
get  eggs  the  first  day.  You  may  put  these  into  the  empty  chalk 
box,  and  we  will  call  it  the  incubator.  It  will  be  a  very  interest- 
ing box  as  the  days  go  by." 

Carl.  "I  got  a  lot  off  the  corn  leaves  as  I  came  through  the 
field.  They  are  the  common  kind  with  red  legs,  and  not  very 
big." 

Tr.  "I  am  going  to  keep  these  grasshoppers  here  all  day,  if  I 
can  make  them  comfortable.  What  can  I  do  for  them,  John?" 

John.      "They  want  something  to  eat,  I  guess." 

Alice.      "Maybe  they're  thirsty." 

Tr.      "What  would  you  suggest  to  feed  them  with,   Arthur?" 

Arthur.  "They'll  eat  corn,  or  wheat  or  just  anything  green,  I 
guess." 

Tr.  ''Jim,  you  may  go  out  and  find  something  to  feed  the  an- 
imals." 

He  goes  and  soon  returns  with  a  cabbage  leaf  dripping  wet. 

"I  thought  I  might  as  well  water  'em  at  the  same  time,"  he  ex- 
plains. 

The  leaf  is  poked  in  through  the  narrow  door,  and  the  children 
come  up  close  to  see  the  result.  After  a  moment  the  insects  be- 
gin to  eat. 

Tr.  "I  wish  you  would  find  out  all  you  can  in  the  next  minute 
or  two.  The  sharpest  eyes  will  see  the  most,  of  course,  let's  see 
whose  they  are." 

Time  being  called,  the  responses  come  thick  and  fast.  The 
only  rule  is:  "Don't  interrupt  any  one  who  is  speaking." 

Carl.      "Don't  they  work  their  mouths  funny!" 

Tr.      "How,   Carl?" 

Carl.      "Why,  they  chew  up  and  down  and  sidewise  all  at  once." 

Mary.  "And  they  have  funny  little  fingers  at  the  corners  ot 
their  mouths." 

Jim.    "This  one  is  eatin'  right  on  the  edge  of  the  leaf." 

Tom.    "And  he  sticks  his  toes  in  to  keep  from  falling  off." 

Alice.    "They  all  nod  their  heads  while  they  eat." 

John.  "They  swell  out  their  bodies  about  once  a  second.  Is 
that  the  way  they  breathe,  do  you  s'pose?" 

Tr.    "Watch  them  awhile,  John,  and  think  it  over." 

Ellen.  "They  have  long  horns  on  their  heads,  and  they  wave 
them  up  and  down.  Sometimes  they  lay  them  on  the  leaf." 

Otto.      "They  have  sharp  teeth." 

Arthur.  "Yes,  or  they  couldn't  cut  it  off  so  clean  and  smooth, 
could  they?" 


A  NATURE   STUDY  LESSON  ON    THE     GRASSHOPPER.  37 

Tr.    "How  many  legs  does  the  creature  have?" 

All.    "Six." 

Mary.  "The  hind  pair  are  to  jump  with,  so  they're  big  and 
strong." 

Tr.    "How  many  wings?" 

All.    "Two!" 

John.  "There's  four!  That  big  grasshopper  had  a  pair  of  black 
and  yellow  ones  when  he'd  got  up  to  fly.  They  must  all  be  the 
same." 

Tr.  "Think  about  this  a  little  longer,  children.  Get  a  grass- 
hopper and  ask  him  how  many  wings  he  has.  He  will  tell  you  to 
look  and  see." 

Carl.    "Are  those  his  eyes  on  the  corners  of  his  head?" 

Tr.      "Would  that  be  a  good  place  for  eyes?" 

Jim.  "He  could  see  in  all  directions.  He  wouldn't  have  to 
turn  his  head." 

Alice.  "The  back  part  of  the  body  is  made  of  joints  like  a  stove- 
pipe, only  they  move  a  little.  And  there  are  some  dots  on  the 
sides." 

Tr.  "You  have  all  been  very  good  observers.  I  can't  say  who 
is  best.  I  think  we  have  stared  at  our  visitors  as  long  as  we  ought 
to  today.  You  may  write  for  your  language  lesson  what  you  have 
learned  about  the  grosshopper.  You  may  find  out  all  you  can 
about  the  young  ones  tomorrow.  Keep  watch  of  the  incubator  and 
look  for  young  ones  out  of  doors.  You  will  find  their  cast  off 
clothing  on  the  ground  in  grassy  places,  if  you  are  patient  and 
press  the  grass  roots  apart  with  care.  Try  to  find  out  for  sure 
how  grasshoppers  breathe;  why  they  are  so  differently  colored; 
and  if  they  have  the  senses  of  sight,  hearing,  tou~h,  taste,  and 
smell.  Mary  and  Alice  may  act  as  a  Committee  on  Entertainment 
tomorrow,  and  see  that  there  is  no  lack  of  food  and  water  in  the 
cage.  Jim  will  watch  events  in  the  chalk  box,  and  let  us  know 
the  moment  the  first  egg  hatches.  I  have  not  answered  questions 
for  you  because  I  wish  you  to  work  them  out  yourself,  as  you 
would  an  example  in  arithmetic.  Next  week,  or  perhaps  before 
next  week,  we  will  talk  over  the  new  things  we  learn  about  the 
grasshopper," 


38 

CHAPTER    VII. 

SCHOOL    GARDENS. 

By  JOHN    CRAIG,   Ames,  Iowa. 

How  often  one  sees  a  school  house  planted  in  the  middle  of  a 
bare  and  unclothed  piece  of  ground.  No  trees,  shrubs  or  flowers 
to  releave  the  barrenness  and  give  a  touch  of  civilization,  life,  and 
home-likeness.  Why  not  undertake  a  small  garden  patch  this 
,  year  or  next?  It  is  astonishing  how  much  pleasure  and  informa- 
tion may  be  derived  from  a  strip  of  soil  five  by  fifteen  feet.  It  is 
remarkable  how  much  horticultural  knowledge  may  be  stolen  from 
it.  Here  seeds  may  be  planted  and  watched  as  they  sprout  and 
spring  into  various  forms.  Here  wild  plants  may  be  set  and  ob- 
served as  they  respond  to  improved  conditions  and  better  surround- 
ings. 

Where  shall  we  establish  the  garden?  In  the  center  of  the  lot? 
I  think  not.  Our  tiny  plot  would  be  lost  in  such  a  position,  besides 
running  the  risk  of  being  trampled  by  the  .feet  of  play  loving  child- 
ren. Where  do  flowers  look  best?  Where  a  picture  hangs  to  best 
advantage,  against  a  suitable  background.  Then  let  us  choose  a 
^sheltered  corner  by  the  schoolhouse,  or  a  strip  where  we  may  have 
.the  friendly  protection  of  a  hedge  row,  or  even  the  companionship 
,of  a  fence.  If  our  choice  brings  us  alongside  a  fence,  hedge,  or 
walk  where  the  bed  can  only  be  approached  from  one  side,  it 
jshould  be  quite  narrow,  not  more  than  three  feet  wide. 

THE  FIRST  THING  TO  DO:  Get  some  of  the  larger  boys  interested, 
;ask  them  to  bring  spades  and  then  superintend  the  "digging  bee." 
See  that  the  grass  and  weed  roots  are  all  shaken  out  and  thrown 
away  or  buried  deep  beneath  the  surface.  At  this  point  the  teach- 
jer  may  start  the  children  to  thinking  by  askning  the  purpose  of 
this  mellowing  and  deepening  process.  How  are  soils  formed? 
.(See  Chapter  II.)  Look  for  decaying  weed  and  grass  roots  and 
^show  the  changes  going  on  which  form  soil  out  of  the  roots  of 
clover  and  trees.  Note  how  readily  the  water  is  absorbed  by  the 
foosened  soil:  the  deeper  it  is  loosened  up,  the  more  water  it  will 
Jiold.  When  the  bed  is  thoroughly  loosened  up  the  next  thing  to 
be  done  is  to  rake  the  surface  until  the  clods  are  all  broken  up 
perfectly  fine  and  smooth. 

This  raking  and  fining  of  the  surface  is  to  hold  the  moisture. 
How  is  this  done?  By  making  the  surface  soil  very  fine.  Notice 
soil  in  the  school  yard  which  has  been  undisturbed.  It  is  hard, 


SCHOOL    GARDENS.     ; \   '.       '  •'   '..•  :\  5  *'2  •  •'''•39 


his  many  cracks  in  it  and  is  very  dry.  It  has  dried  out — lost  its 
moisture  through  these  cracks  and  through  many  small  openings. 
If  these  openings  are  covered  the  evaporation  is  arrested.  We 
might  accomplish  this  by  covering  the  surface  with  straw  or  other 
mulching  material;  but  we  may  do  it  much  easier  by  keeping  a 
thin,  dry,  dust  covering  which  is  secured  by  stirring  the  surface 
once  or  twice  a  week  with  a  rake. 

Our  bed  has  been  spaded  and  raked,  what  shall  wTe  put  in  it? 
Something  that  will  grow  quickly  and  give  us  plenty  of  flowers. 
We  would  suggest  sweet  peas  first.  They  grow  three  or  four  te:et 
high  and  should  be  placed  in  the  background.  The  seeds  are' 
cheap  and  easily  obtained.  Plant  them  at  least  three  inches  deep. 
They  should  be  put  in  early  in  the  season — in  the  last  week  of 
April  or  the  first  week  in  May,  before  the  corn  planting  time. 
Place  the  seeds  an  inch  or  two  apart  in  the  row  and  thin  the  plants 
when  they  come  up  so  that  they  will  stand  four  or  five  inches  apart. 
They  may  either  be  planted  in  double  rows  six  inches  apart  or  in 
little  clumps.  Sweet  peas  have  weak  stems  and  should  be  given 
something  to  lean  upon.  Small  branching  limbs  of  trees  will  do 
very  well  stuck  in  the  ground  behind  the  rows  or  in  the  center  of 
each  cluster.  It  should  not  be  imagined  that  one  must  use  the 
rather  unsightly  brush  to  hold  up  the  sweet  peas.  Wire  netting 
does  well,  but  this  is  more  difficult  to  get  and  more  costly  to  pur- 
chase. Anyhow  sweet  peas  may  be  grown  without  either  brush 
or  wire  netting.  They  take  up  a  little  more  space  if  allowed  to 
tumble  about  unsupported,  but  will  give  nearly  as  many  flowers  as 
if  staked. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  sweet  peas.  A  slight  difference  in  the 
height  of  a  plant  or  in  the  color  of  the  flower  allows  the  seedsman 
to  call  it  a  variety  and  give  it  a  name.  Sweet  peas  are  sold  in 
mixed  packages  which  contain  a  variety  of  colors  and  in  packages 
of  a  single  color  only.  The  single  colors  will  be  found  more  in- 
teresting. So  let  us  buy  some  purples,  lavenders,  whites,  pinks 
and  yellows.  Seedsmen's  catalogues  describe  each  variety  so  that 
selection  is  easy.  Discuss  the  matter  with  the  scholars,  choose 
the  variety  and  raise  the  money  by  taking  up  a  collection.  When 
the  plants  begin  to  flower  remember  that  it  is  nature's  work  to 
produce  seed.  If  the  flowers  are  picked  off  each  day  the  plant 
keeps  on  trying  to  produce  seed  by  growing  more  flowers,  and 
thus  the  flowering  season  may  be  much  extended. 

So  much  for  sweet  peas.  What  else  shall  we  grow?  The 
sweet  peas  will  furnish  us  an  abundance  of  bloom  during  mid 
summer  but  begin  to  wane  in  September.  Asters  bloom  best  late 


V  *  a     . 

. 


40     '  coL     GARDENS. 


in  summer  so  they  ought  to  make  a  good  second  choice.  There 
are  tall  growing  asters  and  low  growing  kinds.  The  latter  are 
called  dwarfs  on  account  of  their  small  stature.  A  row  of  tall 
ones  might  be  planted  next  to  the  sweet  peas  and  a  row  of  dwarfs 
next  to  them.  In  this  way  we  may  be  able  to  see  them  all  at  a 
glance.  Let  us  look  at  the  aster  seed;  wre  find  it  very  tiny  com- 
pared to  the  fat  sweet  peas.  If  it  were  covered  as  deep  it  might 
not  be  able  to  push  the  young  shoot  through  to  the  surface.  We 
must  therefore  plant  it  very  shallow— just  covering  it  with  soil 
well  pressed  down.  Asters  are  sturdy  little  plants  and  need  a 
good  deal  of  elbow  room.  When  they  come  up  let  us  thin  the 
tall  ones  to  ten  inches  apart  and  the  dwarfs  to  six  inches.  Let  us 
put  in  two  tall  kinds  and  two  dwarfs. 

Shall  we  plant  anything  else?  If  we  still  have  some  space  I 
would  put  in  some  pansies  or  phloxes.  They  Will  make  a  pretty 
edging  and  give  lots  of  flowers.  The  seed  may  be  covered  about 
an  inch  deep  and  the  plants  thinned  to  six  inches. 

How  many  school  teachers  will  try  a  garden  next  year?  WTrite 
us  for  suggestions.  We  shall  be  glad  to  help  you  make  your  gar- 
den a  success.  If  at  any  time  the  soil  should  be  very  dry,  get  the 
boys  and  girls  to  water  the  plants,  but  see  that  the  wetting  is  very 
thorough,  not  merely  on  the  surface.  The  watering  should  be 
done  at  night.  Next  morning  the  surface  should  be  raked  to  pre- 
vent the  dry  air  carrying  off  all  the  moisture  and  leaving  the 
ground  hard  and  baked. 


YC  63595 


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